†To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: Introduction
Water is essential for sustaining life and is a key element in public health, food security, economic development, national and international political security, and sustainability. Nevertheless, billions of people worldwide lack access to safe drinking water, leading to sanitation issues and outbreaks of waterborne diseases (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2024).
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), as of 2022, approximately 2.2 billion people worldwide lacked access to safely managed drinking water services, resulting in an estimated 505,000 deaths annually from diarrheal diseases and other waterborne illnesses (World Health Organization (WHO), 2023). Contaminated water is a major source of diseases such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, and polio, with disproportionate impacts in low-income countries.
Although Mongolia is endowed with relatively abundant water resources, only 2% of its total water volume is accessible as groundwater, which is the main source of potable water. In practice, groundwater serves as the primary source for household, livestock, and industrial use, accounting for over 80% of the country’s total water usage (Jeon et al., 2012). However, the volume of drinkable water is limited and unevenly distributed across regions.
In recent decades, Mongolia has experienced a rapid expansion of the mining sector, which has significantly increased groundwater demand and exacerbated water scarcity and environmental pressures. National and international assessments highlight that Mongolia’s rapidly growing mining industry has led to increased extraction of groundwater resources, degradation of river and lake ecosystems, and a rise in water pollution risks, particularly in regions with extensive mining activity (Tsogtbaatar et al., 2009). Many wells in Mongolia fail to meet national standards for drinking water quality (United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, 2018). These findings underscore the urgent need for effective water management and purification approaches in the region.
Water quality issues can have significant adverse effects on human health, including the transmission of waterborne diseases and exposure to harmful chemicals (Prüss‐Ustün et al., 2014). Contaminated water sources are linked to increased risks of gastrointestinal illnesses, neurological disorders, and other serious health problems (WHO, 2017). Despite these risks, many residents in Dornogovi remain unaware of the significance of the water quality problem, and the region’s underdeveloped infrastructure limits the feasibility of local solutions.
The use of effective filtration systems at the point of entry as a final barrier is crucial for protecting public health in areas where centralized water treatment is inadequate (Sobsey et al., 2008). Filtration-based purification technologies are cost-effective, eco-friendly, and easy to operate, making them suitable for deployment in developing regions (Pooi and Ng, 2018). In this context, we installed point-of-use water purifiers in public and educational institutions in Dornogovi. This approach reduced overall costs while ensuring a reliable supply of safe drinking water for consumption, with untreated water remaining available for other domestic uses. In addition to these technical interventions, there is a recognized need to educate residents on water and sanitation practices (WHO, 2017). International guidelines and systematic reviews emphasize that combining water quality improvements with community education on hygiene and safe water practices can effectively improve community health (Fewtrell et al., 2005). Therefore, we implemented a Sustainable Community Hygiene and Environmental Education program to raise awareness among residents about proper handwashing steps and the importance of clean water.
While previous studies have assessed water quality in the region according to Ichinnorov et al. (2022), actual on-site activities aimed at improving water quality remain limited. In this context, our volunteer project in Dornogovi Province integrated the installation and maintenance of water purification systems with community-based hygiene and environmental education initiatives. The objective of this study was to assess the access to safe drinking water in Dornogovi Province and investigate the feasibility and results of implementing a community development project incorporating point-of-use water filtration with hygiene and environmental education.
Materials and Methods
1. Study Area: Dornogovi Province, Mongolia
This volunteer project was conducted in two locations within Dornogovi Province, located in the eastern Gobi Desert steppe of Mongolia. Dornogovi is well known for its extensive mining activities, which have contributed to both economic development and environmental challenges in the region (Asian Development Bank, 2023).
In Dornogovi, approximately 66.5% of households relied on portable water supply systems in 2024, meaning they manually fetched drinking water from supply stations, water-tank trucks, carts, or natural sources such as springs and streams, due to limited access to piped water infrastructure (National Statistics Office of Mongolia, 2024). This reliance on portable water sources increases the risk of contamination, underscoring the importance of effective water quality management.
For this project, activity sites were selected based on a prior needs assessment targeting five public institutions—including one government office, two kindergartens, and two schools—with high public accessibility and strong potential for widespread health benefits from improved water quality. Although our team also visited a hospital in Urgun, water samples were not collected at that site, and it was therefore not included among the formal target locations of this study. Our team visited each institution and installed water purification solutions at these locations to maximize the local impact. In addition, to enhance our understanding of urban water usage patterns, we visited the Sainshand Water Authority and conducted interviews with relevant officials. The locations of visited sites are illustrated in a map, and detailed information, including geographic coordinates, is summarized in the table (Figure 1; Table 1).
1.1 Sainshand
Sainshand is the capital and largest settlement of Dornogovi Province, functioning as the primary administrative and economic center in southeastern Mongolia. As the aimag (provincial) center, Sainshand is classified as an urban settlement and serves as the main hub for public services, education, and transportation in the region (Asian Development Bank, 2023). Groundwater is the primary source of drinking water in Sainshand; however, the area faces challenges related to water quality, including elevated levels of dissolved minerals such as fluoride and total dissolved solids, as well as occasional contamination with trace elements like arsenic. These challenges have highlighted the need for water treatment and quality management (Tuinhof and Buyanhisnig, 2010). In Sainshand, we visited [Sainshand Kindergarten #3], which serves approximately 140 children aged 2-5 years, and [Sainshand #2 School], which accommodates about 1,200 students ranging from primary (6-10 years), middle (11-14 years), to high school (15-17 years) levels.
1.2 Urgun
Urgun is a small, remote settlement located in southeastern Dornogovi Province, Mongolia, with a population of approximately 1,916 residents (Mongolia Guide, n.d.). Recent hydrochemical studies have reported that groundwater in Dornogovi Province, including the Urgun area, contains elevated concentrations of arsenic and uranium. According to a survey of wells in Dornogovi, arsenic levels in some samples exceeded the World Health Organization guideline and the national standard of 10 μg/L, and uranium concentrations were also found to be above recommended limits (Ichinnorov et al., 2022). These findings underscore the necessity for monitoring and mitigation measures to ensure the continued availability of safe drinking water in the region. In Urgun, we visited the local government office, kindergarten, and school.
Several uranium mining sites are located near Urgun, including the Dulaan Uul and Zoovch Ovoo deposits. In Dornogovi aimag, groundwater surveys showed significantly elevated concentrations of uranium, arsenic, and selenium—particularly in wells close to the Dulaan Uul and Zoovch Ovoo sandstone‑type uranium deposits. Molybdenum and cadmium levels were also elevated, though to a lesser degree. Around 25% of samples exceeded the WHO guideline of 30 μg/L for uranium, and arsenic concentrations periodically surpassed the WHO guideline of 10 μg/L. Prior research attributes these high levels to the geochemical mobilization of trace elements from mineralized sandstone-host uranium deposits (Ariunbileg et al., 2016). Therefore, when visiting public institutions in Urgun, we prioritized reducing arsenic concentrations and accordingly selected and installed proven arsenic adsorption filters.
2. Water Purification System
In Dornogovi, the lack of centralized and adequate water treatment facilities means that tap water often fails to meet potable standards. While advanced treatment technologies, such as reverse osmosis (RO), can effectively remove a wide range of contaminants, their application in resource-limited settings is significantly constrained by high installation and operational costs, as well as the need for regular technical maintenance. Furthermore, RO systems produce a waste stream (concentrate) that requires further handling, which limits their practicality in regions with limited water resources and infrastructure (Peter-Varbanets et al., 2009). These economic and operational barriers prevent RO systems from being widely used in rural or low-income areas such as Dornogovi.
Therefore, in this study, we adopted point-of-use (POU) water purification systems as a practical and sustainable alternative, taking into account the environmental and economic conditions of the region. POU systems can be installed directly at the household or community level, require minimal maintenance, and are adaptable to local needs. Numerous studies have demonstrated that POU water treatment technologies are effective in reducing waterborne disease and improving public health outcomes in resource-limited settings (Sobsey et al., 2008). To maximize both feasibility and impact, this project selected filtration-based technologies that are cost-effective, user-friendly, and suitable for the local context in Dornogovi.
The water purification system installed at the volunteer sites consisted of water hoses, piping, a ball valve, four (or five) types of water filters, and a protective cover case (Figure 2). The installed system has a treatment capacity of about 100 L/day under normal working conditions, which is sufficient to cover the daily drinking water needs of employees and students at public institutions including kindergartens and schools. The system was pre-selected and evaluated in Korea before deployment, ensuring that all components met the required standards for the local context. The basic configuration included four filters, each selected and arranged according to particle size and filtration material. Additionally, for Urgun, where groundwater arsenic concentrations are high, an arsenic adsorption filter was incorporated into the system.
2.1 Sediment Filter
The first stage of filtration utilized a sediment filter, which provides mechanical filtration. This filter removes dust, particulate matter, and insoluble iron and manganese from the water, thereby improving turbidity and protecting the subsequent filters in the system (Wu et al., 2021). The filtration capacity of the sediment filter is defined by the minimum particle size it can retain. At the volunteer sites, a 5 μm filter was used.
2.2 Ion Exchange Filter
The second filter is an ion exchange filter, which removes cationic contaminants such as calcium and magnesium, thereby softening the water and improving its taste (Skipton et al., 2008). The ion exchange process is based on the exchange of ions of the same charge between the resin medium and the electrolyte solution (Al Abdulgader et al., 2013). The medium is typically a synthetic resin, usually composed of a complex crosslinked polymer matrix. This filter operates without requiring additional energy input; however, its performance depends on the exchange capacity of the resin and involves the use of chemical materials.
2.3 Pre-Carbon Filter
The third filter is a pre-carbon filter, which relies on the adsorption of contaminants onto the surface of granular activated carbon (GAC). Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in drinking water affects color, taste, and odor, and can promote undesirable bacterial regrowth. GAC removes dissolved organics via adsorption (Servais et al., 1994). It also supports microbial metabolism that can further degrade organic matter.
2.4 UF Filter
The fourth filter is an ultrafiltration (UF) membrane, which removes bacteria, viruses, and other microscopic contaminants. For water with high levels of organic matter, coagulation and sedimentation steps may be required before UF filtration (Laîné et al., 2000). The UF membrane filtration process is based on polymeric membranes (Fiksdal and Leiknes, 2006).
2.5 Arsenic Adsorption Filter
For Urgun, where arsenic concentrations in groundwater are elevated, an additional arsenic adsorption filter was installed (Figure 3). This filter was developed at Hongik University using a hydrothermal synthesis method to produce Fe₂O₃ nanoparticles supported on basalt powder (Fe₂O₃@basalt). Laboratory analyses demonstrated that this filter could reduce trivalent arsenic in water from 100 ppb to 5.44 ppb within 15 minutes, as determined by ICP analysis (Sengeragchaa et al., 2018).
3. Water Quality Analysis Methods
Water quality analysis of source and treated water samples collected on-site was conducted in a laboratory in Korea after the volunteer activities. Standardized analytical instruments were used for all measurements, as summarized in Table 2. The main devices included arsenic test kits, turbidity meters, and total dissolved solids (TDS) measurement devices.
3.1 Arsenic Test Kit
Arsenic (As) is a metalloid that naturally occurs in various oxidation states, including arsenate, arsenite, arsenic, and arsine. Human exposure to arsenic can occur through air, food, and water. Among these, exposure via drinking water is influenced by the chemical and geological conditions of the water source (Pontius et al., 1994). Chronic exposure to arsenic-contaminated drinking water above recommended safety limits has been associated with skin cancer in endemic regions such as Taiwan’s Blackfoot disease area (Tseng et al., 1968). High concentrations of inorganic arsenic in drinking water are also related to increased risks of lung, bladder, and kidney cancers, highlighting the potential health hazards of arsenic exposure (Smith et al., 2002). For water analysis in this study, the arsenic test kit enabled the visual detection of soluble inorganic arsenic within 20 minutes using a colorimetric strip (Fresh Water Systems, n.d.).
3.2 Turbidity Meter
The turbidity of water samples, both before and after purification, was measured using a turbidity meter and expressed in nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) (Lutron Electronics, n.d.).
3.3 Measurement of pH, Conductivity (EC), TDS (ppm)
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), TDS, and temperature of water samples were measured using a multiparameter probe from Hanna Instruments. This pre-amplified probe incorporates an amperometric EC/TDS sensor and a built-in temperature sensor, allowing for simultaneous measurement of multiple water quality parameters (Hanna Instruments Singapore, n.d.).
4. Local Community Understanding and Hygiene and Environmental Education in Sainshand
In addition to providing technical assistance, we aimed to promote the public health and sustainability of the local community in Sainshand by complementing our efforts with education. Our team organized educational activities in partnership with local faith-based community, which served as our primary partner of this project. Since we visited the area during the school vacation period, the faith-based community provided a place to hold educational sessions and community network that connected us with residents.
Prior to providing education, we conducted a survey to understand the community’s water use status and offer educational sessions tailored to its needs. The survey was conducted among the residents of the village where the church was located to further assess the local village community’s drinking water situation.
The survey was conducted to 30 elementary school students, with responses documented with the assistance of an interpreter. As the respondents were primarily children, some questions remained unanswered, and some responses may reflect limited knowledge or understanding of household water practices. This limitation should be considered when interpreting the findings. Nevertheless, the survey provided a foundational understanding of the water use habits and challenges faced by local village residents. This limited coverage of municipal supply highlights the community’s dependence on alternative sources, which are often more susceptible to contamination and less reliable in terms of availability. Based on the survey, we provided hygiene and environmental education sessions to 25 local students (from elementary and middle school) and their parents and grandparents.
In addition to providing clean drinking water through the installation and maintenance of purification systems, efforts to ensure the sustainability of these initiatives within the local community are essential. Therefore, at each public facility visited, we provided training to staff on filter replacement procedures, recommended replacement intervals, and important considerations for system maintenance. This approach aligns with validated practices for a long-term sustainable water supply, which emphasize building local capacity and community ownership (Lockwood and Smits, 2011).
Results and Discussion
1. Water Quality of Sainshand
A survey of the drinking water situation was conducted through a visit to the Sainshand Water Authority. According to interviews with the authority’s official, Sainshand has a population of approximately 20,000, but only about 4,000 households are connected to the municipal water supply via pipelines. Households without piped connections typically obtain water from communal wells in the village. In addition to these infrastructural limitations, water quality issues remain a serious concern. The Water Authority conducts water quality analyses regularly.
The Water Authority’s water quality analysis reports indicate that, even after treatment, concentrations of arsenic (As) and uranium (U) in the water frequently exceed national standards. However, an official from the authority reported difficulties in identifying practical solutions to improve water quality under current conditions. Table 3 presents the results of well water quality analyses from the Sainshand Water Authority, comparing measured values to the Mongolian National Standard (MNS 0900:2018). In several wells, measured concentrations of both As and U exceeded the national limits.
Previous hydrochemical surveys in Dornogovi Province have reported elevated U(VI) levels in several wells across Sainshand, indicating that uranium contamination is a broader regional issue (Ariunbileg et al., 2016). Accordingly, groundwater supplying Sainshand #2 School and Kindergarten #3 may also contain similar concentrations, although site-specific measurements were not taken during our visit. The installed purification systems were not designed specifically for radionuclide removal; however, certain components—particularly the ion-exchange stage—may contribute to partial reduction of dissolved uranium species. Ion-exchange resins, similar in composition to those used in our second-stage filter, are widely recognized for their effectiveness in binding uranyl ions and are commonly applied in uranium remediation technologies (Ighalo et al., 2024). While the system is not a dedicated treatment method for uranium, limited removal is possible. Future work should include direct U measurements at each site to assess actual removal performance and determine whether additional uranium-targeting media are needed.
2. Installation of Water Purification Systems
Table 4 summarizes the installation and replacement of water purification systems at five public facilities in Sainshand and Urgun. The purification systems were designed to be integrated with the existing local groundwater supply pipes without damaging the infrastructure. By adding simple components, such as valves and piping, the installed systems enabled the production of clean, filtered water on-site. The design ensured compatibility with various pipe sizes and types encountered at each location.
At [Sainshand #2 School], only the filters were replaced in the existing purification system, while new purification units were installed at the remaining four sites. In Urgun, due to the high arsenic concentrations in groundwater, an additional arsenic adsorption filter was included alongside the standard four-stage filtration system.
Figure 4 shows the newly installed purification system at [Sainshand #2 School]. The system was connected to the existing water supply using a T-valve, allowing water to pass sequentially through four filters. A ball valve enables users to obtain clean drinking water on demand. A protective cover case was also installed for the filters to facilitate maintenance and hygiene.
After installation, water samples were collected before and after filtration and analyzed in the laboratory for arsenic concentrations. Table 5 presents the results, measured using a colorimetric arsenic test kit. In Sainshand, source water arsenic levels were already low, and no arsenic was detected after filtration. In Urgun, source water samples showed elevated arsenic concentrations; however, after the installation of the purification system, including an arsenic adsorption filter, arsenic levels in the treated water were significantly reduced. According to the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, the recommended limit for arsenic in drinking water is 0.01 mg/L (10 ppb) (WHO, 2022). The results confirm that the installed filters effectively reduced arsenic concentrations to meet this standard.
3. Local Household Survey and Visit
Figure 5 summarizes the survey results conducted among residents of a local community in Sainshand. The water access location reveals that a substantial proportion of residents must fetch water from outside their homes, reflecting both the physical burden and time investment required for the daily task of collecting water (Figure 5a). Transporting heavy containers adds to the burden, limiting access to sufficient drinking water, particularly for vulnerable groups. Seasonal water security remains a significant concern, as shown in Figure 5b. Nearly 29% of households reported experiencing water shortages during the dry season, indicating that water insecurity is a recurring and climate-sensitive issue in the region. Water storage practices indicate that most households store water in large tanks (55.2%), with others utilizing bottles, small jars, or alternative methods (Figure 5c). While bulk storage is a practical adaptation to an irregular water supply, it can also increase the risk of secondary contamination if not properly managed. Finally, 71.4% of households have experienced power outages (Figure 5d). This high incidence of unreliable electricity supply has direct implications for the sustainability of water purification solutions, emphasizing the importance of non-electric or low-energy filtration systems.
Overall, the survey highlights the barriers to safe and reliable drinking water access in Sainshand driven not only by a single factor but the combined effects of limited piped infrastructure, reliance on bulk household storage, and frequent power outages. These limits increase both health burdens on households and the possibility of secondary contamination due to the transport and storage of water (Manga et al., 2021). Given this context, decentralized point-of-use filtration is a practical and appropriate intervention which improves drinking water quality directly at the point of use and reduces health risks. The installation of water filtration systems therefore addresses local issues by reducing exposure to waterborne contaminants and enhancing resilience to both infrastructural and environmental limitations (Pooi and Ng, 2018; Sombei et al., 2025). This approach reflects everyday water use practices of the local community and has potential to significantly contribute to the improved public health and quality of life of the residents.
To better understand local water use, we also visited the homes of students living in traditional Mongolian gers in Sainshand. We observed that many residents stored drinking water in large containers, which were sometimes exposed to direct sunlight or not cleaned regularly. We therefore provided education on safe water storage and handling practices to prevent contamination, even when clean water is supplied (WHO, 2017).
4. Hygiene and Environmental Education in the Local Community of Sainshand
The hygiene and environmental education sessions were held for the local community by the Arshand Gospel Church (Arshand Avralyn zar). This church serves residents ranging from kindergarten students to their parents and is located in Bag 7, Sainshand sum, Dornogovi Aimag, Mongolia. The sessions included video materials highlighting the importance of clean water and its relationship to health. Additionally, we organized activities such as handkerchief dyeing themed on environmental protection and student presentations to reinforce learning. Hygiene education is a critical component in reducing waterborne diseases and promoting safe water practices (United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2019). Therefore, we also emphasized the importance of handwashing by providing education and hands-on practice, offering direct feedback to students during the exercise.
By the end of the session, most of the participants were able to demonstrate the handwashing steps correctly and clearly identify possible contamination risks in their households, such as prolonged storage of water and infrequent cleaning. Through the educational sessions, we fostered not only the awareness of water and hygiene but also practical habits and a sense of responsibility for personal and community health.
Conclusion
This study addressed the challenge of providing safe drinking water in Dornogovi Province by installing adaptable point-of-use purification systems at five public institutions in Sainshand and Urgun. In high-risk areas such as Urgun, incorporating an arsenic adsorption filter effectively reduced arsenic levels to meet WHO guidelines. By focusing on public institutions, the project broadened community access to treated water and built local capacity through training on filter replacement and routine maintenance.
Educational activities on water and hygiene were conducted alongside the technical work. Surveys and household visits in Sainshand offered additional information on local water use and storage practices, which helped contextualize the intervention.
In summary, the project demonstrates that appropriate filtration technologies combined with community education can yield sustainable improvements in water quality and public health in resource-limited settings. The approach provides a practical model for future safe water initiatives in Mongolia and similar regions.
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